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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Six decades have passed since Ashbaugh and colleagues described the use of positive end-expiratory pressure &#40;PEEP&#41; to counteract alveolar collapse in adult &#40;acute&#41; respiratory distress syndrome&#44; leading to the conception of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">open lung</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">approach</span>&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> Elevating the static alveolar distending pressure and reducing cyclic alveolar distension&#44; were proposed as the optimal strategy to reduce the three mechanical components of ventilator-induced lung injury &#40;VILI&#41;&#44; namely baro-&#44; volu- and atelectrauma&#46;</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">While today we have robust evidence that the use of high tidal volumes &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span>&#41; is accompanied by a significant increase in mortality risk&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> the role of PEEP setting has remained controversial&#46; For three decades randomized controlled trials attempting to prove the benefits of higher PEEP strategies &#40;&#8764;15<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O versus &#8764;8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O&#41; have been following up to each other&#44; but compelling evidence has been lacking ever since&#46; Even the implementation of more sophisticated PEEP titration strategies&#44; such as oesophageal manometry<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> and the use of staircase recruitment manoeuvres<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;5</span></a> have only added to the list of negative trials&#46;</p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the current issue of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Journal</span>&#44; Alapont and colleagues attempted to compile the current available evidence by pursuing a systematic review and meta-analysis of all randomized trials having investigated high PEEP strategies published to date&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> Not surprisingly&#44; the heterogeneity of the meta-analysis was moderate to substantial&#44; reflecting the high clinical and methodological variability in these studies&#46; The pooled relative risk for mortality was indicative &#40;0&#46;90&#44; 95&#37; Confidence Interval 0&#46;78&#8211;1&#46;03&#41;&#44; albeit inconclusively&#44; of a protective effect of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">open lung approach</span> and presented a low GRADE quality of evidence&#46; Similar results have been observed in a recently published large network meta-analysis&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> which indicated an inconclusive protective effect for a low <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span> &#8211; high PEEP strategy &#40;defined in said study as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ml&#47;kg and PEEP<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#62;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>10<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This brings us to the perennial question as to why high PEEP resists conclusive proof as opposed to low <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span>&#63; Conceptually we may break this apparent paradox down into the two opposite effects that <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span> and PEEP exert on the total energy delivered to the lung&#46; This energy and the response of the lung&#39;s parenchyma to it can be expressed through the mechanical power&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> Consequently&#44; in contrast to the obvious reduction in mechanical power achieved by lowering <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span>&#44; a high PEEP setting will mostly be associated with an increase in delivered pulmonary energy&#46; As recently shown in an animal model&#44; VILI is directly dependent on the delivered mechanical power&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Interestingly&#44; the sensitivity analysis performed by Alapont and colleagues does indicate exactly towards this relationship&#46; Studies in which a high PEEP setting induced a higher mechanical power relative to the control group were associated with a disappearing protective effect of high PEEP&#46;</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The high collinearity between the mechanical power and the driving pressure shown by the sensitivity analyses of Alapont et al&#46; illustrates that the main mediator between PEEP increase and mechanical power reduction is a decreasing respiratory system elastance&#46; In other words&#44; only when an increase in PEEP leads to an effective distension of alveoli does it reduce the applied mechanical power&#46; However&#44; as Gattinoni et al&#46; showed in their landmark paper&#44; lung recruitability is highly heterogeneous&#44; and less than 40&#37; of patients seem to actively recruit a significant proportion of lung tissue during a recruitment manoeuvre&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> Most strikingly&#44; the authors observed that up to 24&#37; of the total lung tissue cannot be recruited at end-inspiratory plateau airway pressures of 45<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> Hence&#44; one can speculate that more than half of the patients included in PEEP trials did not experience any alveolar recruitment and in the worst-case scenario experienced alveolar overdistension due to excessive PEEP settings&#46; This possibly induced VILI&#44; increasing mortality in the intervention group and drastically reducing statistical power&#46; Ideally&#44; we should fine tune <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span> according to elastance&#44; and PEEP according to lung recruitability&#46;</p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">But how do we recognize recruitable patients&#63; Performing two CT studies at different PEEP levels&#44; might be a very elegant option and the current gold standard&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> but is impractical at the bedside&#46; On the other hand&#44; recruitment assessment methods based on lung mechanics are generally limited in discerning between actual atelectatic tissue recruitment and overdistension of the baby lung&#46; The recently proposed recruitment-to-inflation ratio might provide guidance in balancing the risk of atelectrauma against the risk of overdistension during recruitment&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> Another emergent technique&#44; thoracic electric impedance tomography&#44; can enable to discern alveolar recruitment from overdistension in a more visual approach&#44; whilst concomitantly allowing assessment of regional pulmonary perfusion&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12&#44;13</span></a></p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In a further sensitivity analysis&#44; Alapont et al&#46; illustrate that patients with a P<span class="elsevierStyleInf">a</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>&#47;F<span class="elsevierStyleInf">i</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span> ratio below 160<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mmHg profit from high PEEP as opposed to patients with higher P<span class="elsevierStyleInf">a</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>&#47;F<span class="elsevierStyleInf">i</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span> ratios&#46; Briel et al&#46; showed a similar P<span class="elsevierStyleInf">a</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>&#47;F<span class="elsevierStyleInf">i</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span> ratio dependant protective effect for high PEEP in their individual data meta-analysis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> Indeed&#44; the fraction of pulmonary recruitable patients increases with decreasing P<span class="elsevierStyleInf">a</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>&#47;F<span class="elsevierStyleInf">i</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span> ratio&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10&#44;15</span></a> a property that has already successfully been implemented to enrich ARDS trials targeting pulmonary recruitment by means of prone position&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> However&#44; and as the ART&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> EPVent-2<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> and PHARLAP<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> trials have exemplified&#44; simple enrichment of PEEP trials with a P<span class="elsevierStyleInf">a</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>&#47;F<span class="elsevierStyleInf">i</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span> ratio below 200<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mmHg does not suffice&#46;</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">How do we proceed from here&#63; As exemplified by this meta-analysis&#44; pursuing larger and more complex trials attempting to show the benefit of high PEEP in heterogeneous ARDS populations is a futile enterprise&#46; Instead&#44; it is time to step back to mechanistic research and reassess how to best characterize the mechanical properties of the lung and best recognize patients with recruitable lungs&#46; It will be the task of phenotyping and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">individualized</span> medicine to pave the way towards a successful implementation of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">open lung approach</span>&#46; If this will be achieved through biological and inflammatory phenotypes&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> by a more lung centred characterization of pulmonary morphology and mechanical properties<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> or if advanced pulmonary imaging tools are the key&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> remains unknown&#46; However&#44; it all points to an exciting future&#44; full of research possibilities&#44; ahead of us&#46;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Up until then&#44; we suggest a do no harm approach&#46; From a pragmatic point of view&#44; PEEP settings of 8&#8211;12<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O will likely provide for a balanced choice&#44; while we employ a simple and proven lifesaving intervention in ARDS&#58; low <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span> and prone position&#46;</p></span>"
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Editorial
Positive end-expiratory pressure, or the perennial conundrum surrounding lung recruitment
Presión positiva al final de la espiración o el perenne enigma que rodea el reclutamiento pulmonar
P.D. Wendel-Garciaa, F. Roche-Campob, J. Manceboc,
Autor para correspondencia
JMancebo@santpau.cat

Corresponding author.
a Institute of Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
b Intensive Care Dept, Hospital de Tortosa Verge de la Cinta, Tortosa, Tarragona, Spain
c Intensive Care Dept, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain
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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Six decades have passed since Ashbaugh and colleagues described the use of positive end-expiratory pressure &#40;PEEP&#41; to counteract alveolar collapse in adult &#40;acute&#41; respiratory distress syndrome&#44; leading to the conception of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">open lung</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">approach</span>&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> Elevating the static alveolar distending pressure and reducing cyclic alveolar distension&#44; were proposed as the optimal strategy to reduce the three mechanical components of ventilator-induced lung injury &#40;VILI&#41;&#44; namely baro-&#44; volu- and atelectrauma&#46;</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">While today we have robust evidence that the use of high tidal volumes &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span>&#41; is accompanied by a significant increase in mortality risk&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> the role of PEEP setting has remained controversial&#46; For three decades randomized controlled trials attempting to prove the benefits of higher PEEP strategies &#40;&#8764;15<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O versus &#8764;8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O&#41; have been following up to each other&#44; but compelling evidence has been lacking ever since&#46; Even the implementation of more sophisticated PEEP titration strategies&#44; such as oesophageal manometry<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> and the use of staircase recruitment manoeuvres<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;5</span></a> have only added to the list of negative trials&#46;</p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the current issue of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Journal</span>&#44; Alapont and colleagues attempted to compile the current available evidence by pursuing a systematic review and meta-analysis of all randomized trials having investigated high PEEP strategies published to date&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> Not surprisingly&#44; the heterogeneity of the meta-analysis was moderate to substantial&#44; reflecting the high clinical and methodological variability in these studies&#46; The pooled relative risk for mortality was indicative &#40;0&#46;90&#44; 95&#37; Confidence Interval 0&#46;78&#8211;1&#46;03&#41;&#44; albeit inconclusively&#44; of a protective effect of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">open lung approach</span> and presented a low GRADE quality of evidence&#46; Similar results have been observed in a recently published large network meta-analysis&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> which indicated an inconclusive protective effect for a low <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span> &#8211; high PEEP strategy &#40;defined in said study as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ml&#47;kg and PEEP<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#62;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>10<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This brings us to the perennial question as to why high PEEP resists conclusive proof as opposed to low <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span>&#63; Conceptually we may break this apparent paradox down into the two opposite effects that <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span> and PEEP exert on the total energy delivered to the lung&#46; This energy and the response of the lung&#39;s parenchyma to it can be expressed through the mechanical power&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> Consequently&#44; in contrast to the obvious reduction in mechanical power achieved by lowering <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span>&#44; a high PEEP setting will mostly be associated with an increase in delivered pulmonary energy&#46; As recently shown in an animal model&#44; VILI is directly dependent on the delivered mechanical power&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Interestingly&#44; the sensitivity analysis performed by Alapont and colleagues does indicate exactly towards this relationship&#46; Studies in which a high PEEP setting induced a higher mechanical power relative to the control group were associated with a disappearing protective effect of high PEEP&#46;</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The high collinearity between the mechanical power and the driving pressure shown by the sensitivity analyses of Alapont et al&#46; illustrates that the main mediator between PEEP increase and mechanical power reduction is a decreasing respiratory system elastance&#46; In other words&#44; only when an increase in PEEP leads to an effective distension of alveoli does it reduce the applied mechanical power&#46; However&#44; as Gattinoni et al&#46; showed in their landmark paper&#44; lung recruitability is highly heterogeneous&#44; and less than 40&#37; of patients seem to actively recruit a significant proportion of lung tissue during a recruitment manoeuvre&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> Most strikingly&#44; the authors observed that up to 24&#37; of the total lung tissue cannot be recruited at end-inspiratory plateau airway pressures of 45<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> Hence&#44; one can speculate that more than half of the patients included in PEEP trials did not experience any alveolar recruitment and in the worst-case scenario experienced alveolar overdistension due to excessive PEEP settings&#46; This possibly induced VILI&#44; increasing mortality in the intervention group and drastically reducing statistical power&#46; Ideally&#44; we should fine tune <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span> according to elastance&#44; and PEEP according to lung recruitability&#46;</p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">But how do we recognize recruitable patients&#63; Performing two CT studies at different PEEP levels&#44; might be a very elegant option and the current gold standard&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> but is impractical at the bedside&#46; On the other hand&#44; recruitment assessment methods based on lung mechanics are generally limited in discerning between actual atelectatic tissue recruitment and overdistension of the baby lung&#46; The recently proposed recruitment-to-inflation ratio might provide guidance in balancing the risk of atelectrauma against the risk of overdistension during recruitment&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> Another emergent technique&#44; thoracic electric impedance tomography&#44; can enable to discern alveolar recruitment from overdistension in a more visual approach&#44; whilst concomitantly allowing assessment of regional pulmonary perfusion&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12&#44;13</span></a></p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In a further sensitivity analysis&#44; Alapont et al&#46; illustrate that patients with a P<span class="elsevierStyleInf">a</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>&#47;F<span class="elsevierStyleInf">i</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span> ratio below 160<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mmHg profit from high PEEP as opposed to patients with higher P<span class="elsevierStyleInf">a</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>&#47;F<span class="elsevierStyleInf">i</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span> ratios&#46; Briel et al&#46; showed a similar P<span class="elsevierStyleInf">a</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>&#47;F<span class="elsevierStyleInf">i</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span> ratio dependant protective effect for high PEEP in their individual data meta-analysis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> Indeed&#44; the fraction of pulmonary recruitable patients increases with decreasing P<span class="elsevierStyleInf">a</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>&#47;F<span class="elsevierStyleInf">i</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span> ratio&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10&#44;15</span></a> a property that has already successfully been implemented to enrich ARDS trials targeting pulmonary recruitment by means of prone position&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> However&#44; and as the ART&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> EPVent-2<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> and PHARLAP<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> trials have exemplified&#44; simple enrichment of PEEP trials with a P<span class="elsevierStyleInf">a</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>&#47;F<span class="elsevierStyleInf">i</span>O<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span> ratio below 200<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mmHg does not suffice&#46;</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">How do we proceed from here&#63; As exemplified by this meta-analysis&#44; pursuing larger and more complex trials attempting to show the benefit of high PEEP in heterogeneous ARDS populations is a futile enterprise&#46; Instead&#44; it is time to step back to mechanistic research and reassess how to best characterize the mechanical properties of the lung and best recognize patients with recruitable lungs&#46; It will be the task of phenotyping and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">individualized</span> medicine to pave the way towards a successful implementation of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">open lung approach</span>&#46; If this will be achieved through biological and inflammatory phenotypes&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> by a more lung centred characterization of pulmonary morphology and mechanical properties<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> or if advanced pulmonary imaging tools are the key&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> remains unknown&#46; However&#44; it all points to an exciting future&#44; full of research possibilities&#44; ahead of us&#46;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Up until then&#44; we suggest a do no harm approach&#46; From a pragmatic point of view&#44; PEEP settings of 8&#8211;12<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O will likely provide for a balanced choice&#44; while we employ a simple and proven lifesaving intervention in ARDS&#58; low <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">V</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">T</span> and prone position&#46;</p></span>"
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