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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A large percentage of critically ill patients require invasive mechanical ventilation &#40;MV&#41;&#8211;a technique that is often essential for patient survival&#44; but which is not harmless or without risks&#46; Growing concern about the so-called ventilator-associated lung injury &#40;VALI&#41; has led to attempts to develop ventilation strategies capable of reducing such injury and of avoiding its consequences at both pulmonary and systemic levels&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although the response to ventilation is ultimately of a biological nature&#44; the triggering factor is mechanical&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> The application of a volume of gas to the respiratory system results in a more or less complex series of pressures and flows&#44; depending on the components that come into play&#46; In this sense&#44; the response depends on whether ventilation is active or not&#44; the characteristics of the airway&#44; the lung parenchyma&#44; the properties of the chest wall&#44; and activation of the respiratory muscles&#46; Monitorization of the ventilated patient is thus the end result of the interactions among all the above-mentioned elements&#46;</p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Conversely&#44; we can try to deduce the condition of each of the elements intervening in respiratory mechanics from the end result reflected by monitorization&#46; In the same way that a series of equations are needed to clarify certain aspects&#44; we need different variables&#8211;sometimes measured under different conditions&#8211;in order to know the condition of each of the pieces in this puzzle&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a> schematically represents some of these variables and their main relationships&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the end&#44; we will need an analysis of different results to transform the data obtained into knowledge of relevance for patient management&#46; The present review describes the main elements of ventilatory mechanics and their interactions&#44; with the aim of establishing the necessary bases for correct interpretation of the data&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Equation of motion</span><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The equation of motion refers to the relationship between the time course of one or more variables and the physical state of the system to which they belong&#46; In application to our study&#44; the equation of motion of the respiratory system refers to the relationship between the pressure in the system and the volume&#44; flow and convective flow values&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> This equation and its components are shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#46; The equation indicates that at each point in time&#44; the pressure in the respiratory system has an elastic component needed for distension of the lung parenchyma&#44; a resistive component needed for the air flow to advance against the resistances of the airway&#44; and an inertial component due to the changes in the lung parenchyma caused by volume acceleration&#46; It is accepted that at respiratory frequencies of under 1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Hz &#40;60<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>rpm&#41;&#44; the component due to the inertia of the system is negligible&#44; and is therefore usually not taken into account&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Based on the equation of motion&#44; we can establish the conditions required to conduct an adequate study of respiratory mechanics&#46; In order to facilitate interpretation of the data&#44; the patient must not make any respiratory effort&#44; as a result of which pressure due to muscle effort &#40;Pmus&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46; If we obtain a pressure value under zero flow conditions &#40;referred to as static conditions&#41;&#44; the resistive component of the pressure is canceled&#46; In this situation&#44; we can calculate the compliance of the respiratory system&#44; as will be explained further below&#46; To this effect&#44; we require inspiratory and expiratory pauses that cause the flow in the airway to be zero&#44; with a view to measuring some of the mechanical parameters&#46; Likewise&#44; we can obtain measures under conditions of very low inspiratory flow rates &#40;&#60;9<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>l&#47;min&#41; that cause the resistive component of the pressure to be negligible&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> In this case we speak of &#8220;quasistatic&#8221; conditions&#46; Lastly&#44; dynamic conditions are referred to when the air flow in the airway is not zero&#46; One same parameter such as compliance can have very different meanings&#44; depending on the conditions under which it has been obtained &#40;static or dynamic&#41;&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Measurements under static conditions</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Considering a volume-control ventilation mode and plotting the corresponding time-pressure curve&#44; we observe a pressure drop immediately after closing of the inspiratory valve&#46; During this inspiratory pause&#44; before the expiratory valve opens&#44; the flow stops and allows the volume of delivered air to be maintained and homogeneously distributed&#44; thanks to the balance reached by the viscoelastic forces of the lung&#46; The pressure reached at that point&#44; under static conditions&#44; is defined as the plateau pressure &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">plat</span>&#41;&#44; and reflects the elastic retraction pressure of the respiratory system&#46; When equilibrium is reached in the airway pressures of the patient&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">plat</span> is equivalent to the alveolar pressure &#40;AP&#41; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig&#46; 3</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As a further development of this concept&#44; the compliance of the respiratory system &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">RS</span>&#41; can be defined as the relationship between pressure and volume&#44; commonly calculated with the following formula&#58;<elsevierMultimedia ident="eq0005"></elsevierMultimedia>while elastance is defined as the inverse of compliance &#40;i&#46;e&#46;&#44; pressure per unit volume&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The measurement of total positive end-expiratory pressure &#40;PEEP&#41; is also carried out under conditions of zero flow&#44; at the end of expiration&#44; performing a pause before the start of the next cycle&#46; Although this parameter is easily determined&#44; interpretation of the value obtained must be made taking into account the possible situations capable of producing it&#46; Accordingly&#44; in those patients with active expiration&#44; a pressure gradient is generated between the alveoli and atmospheric air&#59; we thus have a positive pressure at the end of inspiration&#44; but which does not imply insufficient voiding of tidal volume&#46; Rather&#44; it reflects an increase in the chest retraction pressure as a result of the muscle effort&#46; Therefore&#44; the absence of expiratory effort is required for correct measurement of this parameter&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Compliance is a nonlinear variable inherent to the respiratory system that is modified as the conditions of both the lung parenchyma and chest change&#46; Thus&#44; the presence of atelectasis or of acute respiratory distress syndrome &#40;ARDS&#41; lessens total compliance of the respiratory system without affecting the elastic nature of the remaining healthy lung&#8211; thereby evidencing the dependency of compliance upon the ventilatable volume&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> However&#44; the calculation of compliance with this formula is limited to a concrete state of the respiratory system&#46; A more detailed study of the elastic properties of the system implies the determination of compliance at different levels of the curve &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; at different PEEP levels&#41;&#46; Lastly&#44; plotting of the pressure&#8211;volume curves affords more complete characterization of the mechanical properties of the respiratory system&#8211;compliance being represented by the slope of the curve at each point&#46; In clinical practice&#44; measurement of the static pressure&#8211;volume curves is tedious to say the least&#44; and implies more or less risk for the patient&#44; depending on the method used&#46; Readers interested in this subject can consult recent reviews on this form of monitorization in particular&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;8</span></a></p><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Measurements under dynamic conditions</span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">On again considering the equation of motion of the respiratory system&#44; another variable that can be monitored is the resistance against air flow&#44; which can be calculated as the ratio between the initial &#40;proximal airway&#41;&#8211;final pressure &#40;alveolar&#41; difference and the circulating air flow&#46;<elsevierMultimedia ident="eq0010"></elsevierMultimedia></p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although the lung tissue and chest structures offer some resistance&#44; that exerted by the airway accounts for almost all the forces opposing air flow&#46; The resistance of the airway is related to lung volume in that it decreases as the lung is insufflated and the airway tends to open&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Consequently&#44; resistance is generally less pronounced during inspiration&#44; since expiration is characterized by the opposite tendency&#46;</p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the presence of laminar flow&#44; with low velocities&#44; the resistance of the airway varies in direct proportion to the viscosity of the gas and the length of the airway&#44; and in inverse proportion to the radius of the airway raised to the fourth power&#46; Thus&#44; if the airway radius is halved&#44; the circulating air flow faces a 16-fold increase in resistance &#40;Poiseuille&#39;s law&#41;&#46; Under normal conditions&#44; the total airway cross-sectional area increases exponentially with the successive divisions of the tracheobronchial tree&#46; The radius of the airway is the main determinant of resistance&#44; since in principle the length of the airway and the viscosity of the gas do not change&#46; In mechanically ventilated patients&#44; the resistance generated by the endotracheal tube also must be taken into account&#46;</p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Dynamic compliance<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> is defined as the relationship between tidal volume and the maximum pressure reached in the respiratory system&#44; as expressed by the following formula&#58;<elsevierMultimedia ident="eq0015"></elsevierMultimedia></p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This parameter globally assesses the impact of the chest&#44; lung parenchyma and airway resistance&#44; yielding values between 10 and 20&#37; less than those corresponding to static compliance&#46; The values in turn are influenced by patient age and weight&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a></p></span></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Chest wall mechanics</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">From the mechanical perspective&#44; the chest wall and lung parenchyma operate as a system connected in series&#44; i&#46;e&#46;&#44; the pressures generated by both sub-systems are summed to contribute to the resulting final pressure&#46; Accordingly&#44; the above-represented equation of motion can be transformed into a formula that contemplates the contribution of each compartment to the final pressure&#58;<elsevierMultimedia ident="eq0020"></elsevierMultimedia>where <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">L</span> is the transpulmonary pressure&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">cw</span> is the esophageal pressure&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">E</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">L</span> is lung elastance&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic"><span class="elsevierStyleSmallCaps">V</span></span> represents lung volume&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">E</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">cw</span> is the elastance of the chest wall&#44; V&#729; is the airway flow&#44; and PEEP<span class="elsevierStyleInf">Tot</span> is the total PEEP&#46; It is generally admitted that the chest wall does not significantly contribute to generate resistive pressure in the respiratory system&#46;</p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Measurement of pleural pressure is required in order to monitor chest wall mechanics&#46; The principal method used for measuring this pressure involves the placement of an esophageal catheter&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> The distal third of the esophagus lies in proximity to the pleural cavity&#44; and it is assumed that the pressures recorded at this point are equivalent&#46; The validity of this assumption is subject to debate&#44; however&#46; Pressure recordings in this zone are exposed to artifacts generated by the heart&#46; On the contrary&#44; it is difficult to offer an absolute value of pleural pressure&#44; since there is a pressure gradient along the entire chest that influences the regional distension of the lung parenchyma&#46; Despite these limitations&#44; it is considered that the changes &#40;relative values&#41; in esophageal pressure are adequately correlated to the changes in pleural pressure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> Lastly&#44; although an acceptable correlation has been documented between the compliance of the chest wall and intraabdominal pressure&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> the validity of this correlation has recently been questioned&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a></p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Based on these pressure recordings in a ventilated patient&#44; we can calculate the transpulmonary pressure as the difference between the pressure in the airway and the esophageal pressure&#46; This transpulmonary pressure is the true lung parenchyma distension pressure&#59; it therefore seems reasonable to use this parameter for adjusting mechanical ventilation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16&#44;17</span></a> By using the transpulmonary pressure and esophageal pressure values&#44; we can calculate the compliance of the lung parenchyma and of the chest wall &#40;expressed as the ratio between the tidal volume and each of the pressures&#41;&#46; Since one same pressure in the airway can result in different transpulmonary pressures depending on the mechanical characteristics of the chest wall&#44; it may be of interest to monitor the latter in order to determine the true stress to which the lung parenchyma is exposed&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> On the contrary&#44; the presence of negative transpulmonary pressures at the end of expiration is indicative of a tendency toward collapse&#8211;fundamentally in dependent zones of the lung&#46; Some authors have suggested that the PEEP values should be raised to make this end-expiratory transpulmonary pressure slightly positive&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Estimation of lung parenchyma deformation</span><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Advances in our knowledge of respiratory mechanics in the ventilated patient reflect the interest in using different parameters of respiratory mechanics as a guide for adjusting mechanical ventilation&#44; and particularly for reducing ventilation-associated injury&#46; However&#44; as we have seen&#44; interpretation of the information must be made in a concrete context&#44; and a range of factors can influence each determination&#46; As an example&#44; an isolated plateau pressure value may have very different meanings depending on the compliance of the abdominal wall&#44; the inspiratory effort of the patient&#44; or the applied PEEP&#46;</p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Improved characterization of the paradigms of ventilator-associated lung injury &#40;VALI&#41; has led to the identification of new injury mechanisms and the corresponding monitorization parameters&#46; In this sense&#44; the benefits of using PEEP together with the gradual reduction of tidal volume suggest that deformation of the lung parenchyma&#44; not only the application of a pressure or volume&#44; constitutes the cause of tissue damage&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> This concept whereby static stress &#40;pressures and volumes in the absence of deformation&#41; is better tolerated than dynamic stress &#40;with tissue deformation&#41; was developed from experimental models in cell cultures and animals&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21&#44;22</span></a> and opens perspectives for clinical application&#46; The physiological parameters allowing us to quantify tissue deformation and its cost are stress and strain&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a></p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Stress is the force required to deform a body&#46; In our case&#44; it refers to the force required to insufflate the lungs with tidal volume&#46; From all the above-described concepts&#44; it can be deduced that the equivalent of stress is transpulmonary pressure&#46;</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Strain is the magnitude of such deformation&#44; expressed as a fraction of the starting &#40;baseline&#41; situation&#46; Applied to respiratory mechanics&#44; the magnitude of the deformation is the tidal volume&#46; However&#44; there is some controversy regarding what the starting situation should be&#46; In its original proposal&#44; the group led by Gattinoni made use of functional residual capacity &#40;FRC&#41;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> i&#46;e&#46;&#44; the volume of gas in the lung at the end of expiration at atmospheric pressure&#46; Other authors have used the end-expiratory lung volume &#40;EELV&#41; in the presence of PEEP&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24&#44;25</span></a> The difference between the two measurements is given by the safety thresholds and adjustment of the calculations in the presence of PEEP &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#46; In the first case&#44; the increase in lung volume is regarded as &#8220;deformation&#8221;&#44; and therefore would be summed to tidal volume&#46; In the second case&#44; the volume is summed to functional residual capacity&#46; In other words&#44; the addition of PEEP increases the strain when calculated with the first formula&#44; and reduces it when calculated with the second formula&#46; In fact&#44; it should be understood that the application of PEEP produces both recruitment of previously non-aerated zones &#40;thereby reducing strain&#44; since the lung parenchyma available for ventilation is increased&#41; and an increase in the volume of already aerated zones &#40;which would increase strain&#41;&#46; Thus&#44; in order to correctly calculate the change in strain in response to PEEP&#44; we again need to measure the recruited volume&#46; The subject of alveolar recruitment falls beyond the scope of this work&#44; though interested readers can consult a number of reviews on this topic&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26&#44;27</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Clinical implications</span><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The main aims of the monitorization of respiratory mechanics are to diagnose the state of respiratory function and to guide the adjustment of ventilation&#46; No diagnostic technique alone is able to improve the patient prognosis if effective treatment does not accompany the diagnosis made&#46; Therefore&#44; in order to be of benefit for patients&#44; the information obtained through monitorization&#44; following adequate interpretation&#44; must result in improvement of the treatment provided&#46;</p><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Regarding the diagnostic possibilities&#44; an analysis of the recordings obtained from the ventilator allows us to detect air trapping and auto-PEEP&#44; the presence of secretions in the endotracheal tube&#44; or alterations in the interaction between the patient and the ventilator&#44; as described in a recent monograph&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a></p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">However&#44; the true impact of respiratory mechanics in the ventilated patient is closely related to its capacity to guide the adjustment of mechanical ventilation&#46; The development of the concept of ventilator-associated or ventilator-induced lung injury has caused prevention of the latter to become a basic aim in patient management&#46; In this sense&#44; a current standard measure is to limit plateau pressure&#44; particularly in patients with ARDS&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a> As a marker of alveolar pressure&#44; plateau pressure should be kept within certain safety limits in order to avoid damage secondary to overdistension&#46; The current recommendation is to avoid values of over 28&#8211;32<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a></p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">However&#44; as has already been mentioned&#44; plateau pressure can be elevated due to an abnormal decrease in chest wall compliance&#44; and transpulmonary pressure is the true alveolar distension force&#46; The use of this pressure as a guide for adjusting ventilation has been associated with good clinical results&#44; despite high plateau pressures&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> Although there are no firm recommendations on the use of transpulmonary pressure &#40;which implies the monitorization of esophageal pressure&#44; with the already commented difficulties and limitations&#41;&#44; it seems reasonable to adopt such an approach in patients with severe respiratory failure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a></p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Lastly&#44; many studies in the literature propose an adjustment of PEEP according to the mechanical characteristics of the respiratory system&#46; As early as 1976&#44; the pioneering work of Suter correlated PEEP adjusted according to the point of best static compliance with improved oxygen transport in patients with ARDS&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a> In a recent clinical trial&#44; the adjustment of PEEP according to best compliance has been associated with improved oxygenation&#44; a lesser incidence of organ failure&#44; and a tendency toward lesser mortality&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a></p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Adopting similar approaches&#44; different groups have made use of dynamic compliance measures&#46; PEEP resulting in increased dynamic compliance values has been associated by different authors to the prevention of alveolar collapse after recruitment<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> and to optimum ventilation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a></p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Use has also been made of different inflexion points on the pressure&#8211;volume curve as a guide for adjusting PEEP&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35&#44;36</span></a> However&#44; the few clinical trials<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37&#44;38</span></a> that have used these strategies employed patients ventilated with high volumes as controls&#59; as a result&#44; it is impossible to know whether the beneficial effects were due to the fine-tuning of PEEP or simply to low tidal volume protection&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Conclusions</span><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The use of mechanical ventilation offers a good opportunity for carrying out studies of respiratory mechanics&#46; Based on different techniques&#44; maneuvers and calculations&#44; we can determine the state of the respiratory system of the ventilated patient and apply treatments as a result&#46; However&#44; the measurements have their limitations&#44; and the possible treatments are not without adverse effects&#46; To date&#44; there is no solid evidence that a concrete measure of respiratory mechanics is able to act as a clear guide in adjusting treatment&#46; Therefore&#44; although mechanics can help us to understand what is happening in the respiratory system of a ventilated patient&#44; it is not possible to firmly propose a guide or strategy for ventilator adjustment based on such measures&#46; Ventilatory mechanics should be interpreted by the clinician as an aid in the global context of the patient&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "Introduction"
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          "titulo" => "Equation of motion"
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          "titulo" => "Measurements under static conditions"
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              "titulo" => "Measurements under dynamic conditions"
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          "titulo" => "Chest wall mechanics"
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        8 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0030"
          "titulo" => "Estimation of lung parenchyma deformation"
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          "identificador" => "sec0035"
          "titulo" => "Clinical implications"
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          "titulo" => "Conclusions"
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          "identificador" => "sec0045"
          "titulo" => "Conflict of interest"
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          "clase" => "keyword"
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            0 => "Mechanical ventilation"
            1 => "Respiratory mechanics"
            2 => "Chest wall mechanics"
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          "clase" => "keyword"
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          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec296294"
          "palabras" => array:4 [
            0 => "Ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica"
            1 => "Mec&#225;nica respiratoria"
            2 => "Mec&#225;nica de la pared tor&#225;cica"
            3 => "Deformaci&#243;n pulmonar"
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      "en" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Monitoring during mechanical ventilation allows the measurement of different parameters of respiratory mechanics&#46; Accurate interpretation of these data can be useful for characterizing the situation of the different components of the respiratory system&#44; and for guiding ventilator settings&#46; In this review&#44; we describe the basic concepts of respiratory mechanics&#44; their interpretation&#44; and their potential use in fine-tuning mechanical ventilation&#46;</p>"
      ]
      "es" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La monitorizaci&#243;n durante la ventilaci&#243;n controlada permite la determinaci&#243;n de diferentes par&#225;metros de mec&#225;nica respiratoria&#46; La interpretaci&#243;n adecuada de estos datos puede ser de utilidad para conocer el estado de los diferentes componentes del sistema respiratorio del paciente&#44; as&#237; como para guiar los ajustes del ventilador&#46; A lo largo de esta revisi&#243;n se describen los conceptos b&#225;sicos de mec&#225;nica respiratoria&#44; su interpretaci&#243;n y su potencial para el ajuste fino de los par&#225;metros de ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica&#46;</p>"
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      0 => array:2 [
        "etiqueta" => "&#9734;"
        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Please cite this article as&#58; Garc&#237;a-Prieto E&#44; Amado-Rodr&#237;guez L&#44; Albaiceta GM&#44; por el grupo de Insuficiencia Respiratoria Aguda de la SEMICYUC&#46; Monitorizaci&#243;n de la mec&#225;nica respiratoria en el paciente ventilado&#46; Med Intensiva&#46; 2014&#59;38&#58;49&#8211;55&#46;</p>"
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        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Schematic representation of different parameters of respiratory mechanics and their main relationships&#46;</p>"
        ]
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      1 => array:7 [
        "identificador" => "fig0010"
        "etiqueta" => "Figure 2"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Equation of motion&#46; The equation of motion of the respiratory system relates the pressure in the system to the different values of volume and air flow&#44; and to the mechanical characteristics of the system &#40;elastance and resistance&#41;&#46;</p>"
        ]
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Calculation of the compliance and resistance of the respiratory system based on the pressure&#44; volume and flow recordings of a mechanical ventilator&#46;</p>"
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                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Conditions&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Original&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Modified&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">PEEP<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">VrFRC&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">VrEELV&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&#916;PEEP&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Vr&#43;VPEEPFRC&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">VrFRC&#43;VPEEP&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Response to PEEP&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Always increases&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Always decreases&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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Update in intensive care: Mechanical ventilation
Monitorization of respiratory mechanics in the ventilated patient
Monitorización de la mecánica respiratoria en el paciente ventilado
E. García-Prietoa, L. Amado-Rodrígueza,b, G.M. Albaicetaa,b,c,
Corresponding author
, in representation of the Acute Respiratory Failure Group of the SEMICYUC
a Servicio de Medicina Intensiva, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Oviedo, Spain
b Departamento de Biología Funcional, Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
c Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red-Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
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depending on the components that come into play&#46; In this sense&#44; the response depends on whether ventilation is active or not&#44; the characteristics of the airway&#44; the lung parenchyma&#44; the properties of the chest wall&#44; and activation of the respiratory muscles&#46; Monitorization of the ventilated patient is thus the end result of the interactions among all the above-mentioned elements&#46;</p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Conversely&#44; we can try to deduce the condition of each of the elements intervening in respiratory mechanics from the end result reflected by monitorization&#46; In the same way that a series of equations are needed to clarify certain aspects&#44; we need different variables&#8211;sometimes measured under different conditions&#8211;in order to know the condition of each of the pieces in this puzzle&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a> schematically represents some of these variables and their main relationships&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the end&#44; we will need an analysis of different results to transform the data obtained into knowledge of relevance for patient management&#46; The present review describes the main elements of ventilatory mechanics and their interactions&#44; with the aim of establishing the necessary bases for correct interpretation of the data&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Equation of motion</span><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The equation of motion refers to the relationship between the time course of one or more variables and the physical state of the system to which they belong&#46; In application to our study&#44; the equation of motion of the respiratory system refers to the relationship between the pressure in the system and the volume&#44; flow and convective flow values&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> This equation and its components are shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#46; The equation indicates that at each point in time&#44; the pressure in the respiratory system has an elastic component needed for distension of the lung parenchyma&#44; a resistive component needed for the air flow to advance against the resistances of the airway&#44; and an inertial component due to the changes in the lung parenchyma caused by volume acceleration&#46; It is accepted that at respiratory frequencies of under 1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Hz &#40;60<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>rpm&#41;&#44; the component due to the inertia of the system is negligible&#44; and is therefore usually not taken into account&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Based on the equation of motion&#44; we can establish the conditions required to conduct an adequate study of respiratory mechanics&#46; In order to facilitate interpretation of the data&#44; the patient must not make any respiratory effort&#44; as a result of which pressure due to muscle effort &#40;Pmus&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46; If we obtain a pressure value under zero flow conditions &#40;referred to as static conditions&#41;&#44; the resistive component of the pressure is canceled&#46; In this situation&#44; we can calculate the compliance of the respiratory system&#44; as will be explained further below&#46; To this effect&#44; we require inspiratory and expiratory pauses that cause the flow in the airway to be zero&#44; with a view to measuring some of the mechanical parameters&#46; Likewise&#44; we can obtain measures under conditions of very low inspiratory flow rates &#40;&#60;9<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>l&#47;min&#41; that cause the resistive component of the pressure to be negligible&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> In this case we speak of &#8220;quasistatic&#8221; conditions&#46; Lastly&#44; dynamic conditions are referred to when the air flow in the airway is not zero&#46; One same parameter such as compliance can have very different meanings&#44; depending on the conditions under which it has been obtained &#40;static or dynamic&#41;&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Measurements under static conditions</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Considering a volume-control ventilation mode and plotting the corresponding time-pressure curve&#44; we observe a pressure drop immediately after closing of the inspiratory valve&#46; During this inspiratory pause&#44; before the expiratory valve opens&#44; the flow stops and allows the volume of delivered air to be maintained and homogeneously distributed&#44; thanks to the balance reached by the viscoelastic forces of the lung&#46; The pressure reached at that point&#44; under static conditions&#44; is defined as the plateau pressure &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">plat</span>&#41;&#44; and reflects the elastic retraction pressure of the respiratory system&#46; When equilibrium is reached in the airway pressures of the patient&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">plat</span> is equivalent to the alveolar pressure &#40;AP&#41; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig&#46; 3</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As a further development of this concept&#44; the compliance of the respiratory system &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">RS</span>&#41; can be defined as the relationship between pressure and volume&#44; commonly calculated with the following formula&#58;<elsevierMultimedia ident="eq0005"></elsevierMultimedia>while elastance is defined as the inverse of compliance &#40;i&#46;e&#46;&#44; pressure per unit volume&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The measurement of total positive end-expiratory pressure &#40;PEEP&#41; is also carried out under conditions of zero flow&#44; at the end of expiration&#44; performing a pause before the start of the next cycle&#46; Although this parameter is easily determined&#44; interpretation of the value obtained must be made taking into account the possible situations capable of producing it&#46; Accordingly&#44; in those patients with active expiration&#44; a pressure gradient is generated between the alveoli and atmospheric air&#59; we thus have a positive pressure at the end of inspiration&#44; but which does not imply insufficient voiding of tidal volume&#46; Rather&#44; it reflects an increase in the chest retraction pressure as a result of the muscle effort&#46; Therefore&#44; the absence of expiratory effort is required for correct measurement of this parameter&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Compliance is a nonlinear variable inherent to the respiratory system that is modified as the conditions of both the lung parenchyma and chest change&#46; Thus&#44; the presence of atelectasis or of acute respiratory distress syndrome &#40;ARDS&#41; lessens total compliance of the respiratory system without affecting the elastic nature of the remaining healthy lung&#8211; thereby evidencing the dependency of compliance upon the ventilatable volume&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> However&#44; the calculation of compliance with this formula is limited to a concrete state of the respiratory system&#46; A more detailed study of the elastic properties of the system implies the determination of compliance at different levels of the curve &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; at different PEEP levels&#41;&#46; Lastly&#44; plotting of the pressure&#8211;volume curves affords more complete characterization of the mechanical properties of the respiratory system&#8211;compliance being represented by the slope of the curve at each point&#46; In clinical practice&#44; measurement of the static pressure&#8211;volume curves is tedious to say the least&#44; and implies more or less risk for the patient&#44; depending on the method used&#46; Readers interested in this subject can consult recent reviews on this form of monitorization in particular&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;8</span></a></p><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Measurements under dynamic conditions</span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">On again considering the equation of motion of the respiratory system&#44; another variable that can be monitored is the resistance against air flow&#44; which can be calculated as the ratio between the initial &#40;proximal airway&#41;&#8211;final pressure &#40;alveolar&#41; difference and the circulating air flow&#46;<elsevierMultimedia ident="eq0010"></elsevierMultimedia></p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although the lung tissue and chest structures offer some resistance&#44; that exerted by the airway accounts for almost all the forces opposing air flow&#46; The resistance of the airway is related to lung volume in that it decreases as the lung is insufflated and the airway tends to open&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Consequently&#44; resistance is generally less pronounced during inspiration&#44; since expiration is characterized by the opposite tendency&#46;</p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the presence of laminar flow&#44; with low velocities&#44; the resistance of the airway varies in direct proportion to the viscosity of the gas and the length of the airway&#44; and in inverse proportion to the radius of the airway raised to the fourth power&#46; Thus&#44; if the airway radius is halved&#44; the circulating air flow faces a 16-fold increase in resistance &#40;Poiseuille&#39;s law&#41;&#46; Under normal conditions&#44; the total airway cross-sectional area increases exponentially with the successive divisions of the tracheobronchial tree&#46; The radius of the airway is the main determinant of resistance&#44; since in principle the length of the airway and the viscosity of the gas do not change&#46; In mechanically ventilated patients&#44; the resistance generated by the endotracheal tube also must be taken into account&#46;</p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Dynamic compliance<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> is defined as the relationship between tidal volume and the maximum pressure reached in the respiratory system&#44; as expressed by the following formula&#58;<elsevierMultimedia ident="eq0015"></elsevierMultimedia></p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This parameter globally assesses the impact of the chest&#44; lung parenchyma and airway resistance&#44; yielding values between 10 and 20&#37; less than those corresponding to static compliance&#46; The values in turn are influenced by patient age and weight&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a></p></span></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Chest wall mechanics</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">From the mechanical perspective&#44; the chest wall and lung parenchyma operate as a system connected in series&#44; i&#46;e&#46;&#44; the pressures generated by both sub-systems are summed to contribute to the resulting final pressure&#46; Accordingly&#44; the above-represented equation of motion can be transformed into a formula that contemplates the contribution of each compartment to the final pressure&#58;<elsevierMultimedia ident="eq0020"></elsevierMultimedia>where <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">L</span> is the transpulmonary pressure&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">cw</span> is the esophageal pressure&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">E</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">L</span> is lung elastance&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic"><span class="elsevierStyleSmallCaps">V</span></span> represents lung volume&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">E</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">cw</span> is the elastance of the chest wall&#44; V&#729; is the airway flow&#44; and PEEP<span class="elsevierStyleInf">Tot</span> is the total PEEP&#46; It is generally admitted that the chest wall does not significantly contribute to generate resistive pressure in the respiratory system&#46;</p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Measurement of pleural pressure is required in order to monitor chest wall mechanics&#46; The principal method used for measuring this pressure involves the placement of an esophageal catheter&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> The distal third of the esophagus lies in proximity to the pleural cavity&#44; and it is assumed that the pressures recorded at this point are equivalent&#46; The validity of this assumption is subject to debate&#44; however&#46; Pressure recordings in this zone are exposed to artifacts generated by the heart&#46; On the contrary&#44; it is difficult to offer an absolute value of pleural pressure&#44; since there is a pressure gradient along the entire chest that influences the regional distension of the lung parenchyma&#46; Despite these limitations&#44; it is considered that the changes &#40;relative values&#41; in esophageal pressure are adequately correlated to the changes in pleural pressure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> Lastly&#44; although an acceptable correlation has been documented between the compliance of the chest wall and intraabdominal pressure&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> the validity of this correlation has recently been questioned&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a></p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Based on these pressure recordings in a ventilated patient&#44; we can calculate the transpulmonary pressure as the difference between the pressure in the airway and the esophageal pressure&#46; This transpulmonary pressure is the true lung parenchyma distension pressure&#59; it therefore seems reasonable to use this parameter for adjusting mechanical ventilation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16&#44;17</span></a> By using the transpulmonary pressure and esophageal pressure values&#44; we can calculate the compliance of the lung parenchyma and of the chest wall &#40;expressed as the ratio between the tidal volume and each of the pressures&#41;&#46; Since one same pressure in the airway can result in different transpulmonary pressures depending on the mechanical characteristics of the chest wall&#44; it may be of interest to monitor the latter in order to determine the true stress to which the lung parenchyma is exposed&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> On the contrary&#44; the presence of negative transpulmonary pressures at the end of expiration is indicative of a tendency toward collapse&#8211;fundamentally in dependent zones of the lung&#46; Some authors have suggested that the PEEP values should be raised to make this end-expiratory transpulmonary pressure slightly positive&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Estimation of lung parenchyma deformation</span><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Advances in our knowledge of respiratory mechanics in the ventilated patient reflect the interest in using different parameters of respiratory mechanics as a guide for adjusting mechanical ventilation&#44; and particularly for reducing ventilation-associated injury&#46; However&#44; as we have seen&#44; interpretation of the information must be made in a concrete context&#44; and a range of factors can influence each determination&#46; As an example&#44; an isolated plateau pressure value may have very different meanings depending on the compliance of the abdominal wall&#44; the inspiratory effort of the patient&#44; or the applied PEEP&#46;</p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Improved characterization of the paradigms of ventilator-associated lung injury &#40;VALI&#41; has led to the identification of new injury mechanisms and the corresponding monitorization parameters&#46; In this sense&#44; the benefits of using PEEP together with the gradual reduction of tidal volume suggest that deformation of the lung parenchyma&#44; not only the application of a pressure or volume&#44; constitutes the cause of tissue damage&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> This concept whereby static stress &#40;pressures and volumes in the absence of deformation&#41; is better tolerated than dynamic stress &#40;with tissue deformation&#41; was developed from experimental models in cell cultures and animals&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21&#44;22</span></a> and opens perspectives for clinical application&#46; The physiological parameters allowing us to quantify tissue deformation and its cost are stress and strain&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a></p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Stress is the force required to deform a body&#46; In our case&#44; it refers to the force required to insufflate the lungs with tidal volume&#46; From all the above-described concepts&#44; it can be deduced that the equivalent of stress is transpulmonary pressure&#46;</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Strain is the magnitude of such deformation&#44; expressed as a fraction of the starting &#40;baseline&#41; situation&#46; Applied to respiratory mechanics&#44; the magnitude of the deformation is the tidal volume&#46; However&#44; there is some controversy regarding what the starting situation should be&#46; In its original proposal&#44; the group led by Gattinoni made use of functional residual capacity &#40;FRC&#41;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> i&#46;e&#46;&#44; the volume of gas in the lung at the end of expiration at atmospheric pressure&#46; Other authors have used the end-expiratory lung volume &#40;EELV&#41; in the presence of PEEP&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24&#44;25</span></a> The difference between the two measurements is given by the safety thresholds and adjustment of the calculations in the presence of PEEP &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#46; In the first case&#44; the increase in lung volume is regarded as &#8220;deformation&#8221;&#44; and therefore would be summed to tidal volume&#46; In the second case&#44; the volume is summed to functional residual capacity&#46; In other words&#44; the addition of PEEP increases the strain when calculated with the first formula&#44; and reduces it when calculated with the second formula&#46; In fact&#44; it should be understood that the application of PEEP produces both recruitment of previously non-aerated zones &#40;thereby reducing strain&#44; since the lung parenchyma available for ventilation is increased&#41; and an increase in the volume of already aerated zones &#40;which would increase strain&#41;&#46; Thus&#44; in order to correctly calculate the change in strain in response to PEEP&#44; we again need to measure the recruited volume&#46; The subject of alveolar recruitment falls beyond the scope of this work&#44; though interested readers can consult a number of reviews on this topic&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26&#44;27</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Clinical implications</span><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The main aims of the monitorization of respiratory mechanics are to diagnose the state of respiratory function and to guide the adjustment of ventilation&#46; No diagnostic technique alone is able to improve the patient prognosis if effective treatment does not accompany the diagnosis made&#46; Therefore&#44; in order to be of benefit for patients&#44; the information obtained through monitorization&#44; following adequate interpretation&#44; must result in improvement of the treatment provided&#46;</p><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Regarding the diagnostic possibilities&#44; an analysis of the recordings obtained from the ventilator allows us to detect air trapping and auto-PEEP&#44; the presence of secretions in the endotracheal tube&#44; or alterations in the interaction between the patient and the ventilator&#44; as described in a recent monograph&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a></p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">However&#44; the true impact of respiratory mechanics in the ventilated patient is closely related to its capacity to guide the adjustment of mechanical ventilation&#46; The development of the concept of ventilator-associated or ventilator-induced lung injury has caused prevention of the latter to become a basic aim in patient management&#46; In this sense&#44; a current standard measure is to limit plateau pressure&#44; particularly in patients with ARDS&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a> As a marker of alveolar pressure&#44; plateau pressure should be kept within certain safety limits in order to avoid damage secondary to overdistension&#46; The current recommendation is to avoid values of over 28&#8211;32<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a></p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">However&#44; as has already been mentioned&#44; plateau pressure can be elevated due to an abnormal decrease in chest wall compliance&#44; and transpulmonary pressure is the true alveolar distension force&#46; The use of this pressure as a guide for adjusting ventilation has been associated with good clinical results&#44; despite high plateau pressures&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> Although there are no firm recommendations on the use of transpulmonary pressure &#40;which implies the monitorization of esophageal pressure&#44; with the already commented difficulties and limitations&#41;&#44; it seems reasonable to adopt such an approach in patients with severe respiratory failure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a></p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Lastly&#44; many studies in the literature propose an adjustment of PEEP according to the mechanical characteristics of the respiratory system&#46; As early as 1976&#44; the pioneering work of Suter correlated PEEP adjusted according to the point of best static compliance with improved oxygen transport in patients with ARDS&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a> In a recent clinical trial&#44; the adjustment of PEEP according to best compliance has been associated with improved oxygenation&#44; a lesser incidence of organ failure&#44; and a tendency toward lesser mortality&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a></p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Adopting similar approaches&#44; different groups have made use of dynamic compliance measures&#46; PEEP resulting in increased dynamic compliance values has been associated by different authors to the prevention of alveolar collapse after recruitment<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> and to optimum ventilation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a></p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Use has also been made of different inflexion points on the pressure&#8211;volume curve as a guide for adjusting PEEP&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35&#44;36</span></a> However&#44; the few clinical trials<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37&#44;38</span></a> that have used these strategies employed patients ventilated with high volumes as controls&#59; as a result&#44; it is impossible to know whether the beneficial effects were due to the fine-tuning of PEEP or simply to low tidal volume protection&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Conclusions</span><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The use of mechanical ventilation offers a good opportunity for carrying out studies of respiratory mechanics&#46; Based on different techniques&#44; maneuvers and calculations&#44; we can determine the state of the respiratory system of the ventilated patient and apply treatments as a result&#46; However&#44; the measurements have their limitations&#44; and the possible treatments are not without adverse effects&#46; To date&#44; there is no solid evidence that a concrete measure of respiratory mechanics is able to act as a clear guide in adjusting treatment&#46; Therefore&#44; although mechanics can help us to understand what is happening in the respiratory system of a ventilated patient&#44; it is not possible to firmly propose a guide or strategy for ventilator adjustment based on such measures&#46; Ventilatory mechanics should be interpreted by the clinician as an aid in the global context of the patient&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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            0 => "Ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica"
            1 => "Mec&#225;nica respiratoria"
            2 => "Mec&#225;nica de la pared tor&#225;cica"
            3 => "Deformaci&#243;n pulmonar"
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        "resumen" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Monitoring during mechanical ventilation allows the measurement of different parameters of respiratory mechanics&#46; Accurate interpretation of these data can be useful for characterizing the situation of the different components of the respiratory system&#44; and for guiding ventilator settings&#46; In this review&#44; we describe the basic concepts of respiratory mechanics&#44; their interpretation&#44; and their potential use in fine-tuning mechanical ventilation&#46;</p>"
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        "resumen" => "<p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La monitorizaci&#243;n durante la ventilaci&#243;n controlada permite la determinaci&#243;n de diferentes par&#225;metros de mec&#225;nica respiratoria&#46; La interpretaci&#243;n adecuada de estos datos puede ser de utilidad para conocer el estado de los diferentes componentes del sistema respiratorio del paciente&#44; as&#237; como para guiar los ajustes del ventilador&#46; A lo largo de esta revisi&#243;n se describen los conceptos b&#225;sicos de mec&#225;nica respiratoria&#44; su interpretaci&#243;n y su potencial para el ajuste fino de los par&#225;metros de ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica&#46;</p>"
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        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Please cite this article as&#58; Garc&#237;a-Prieto E&#44; Amado-Rodr&#237;guez L&#44; Albaiceta GM&#44; por el grupo de Insuficiencia Respiratoria Aguda de la SEMICYUC&#46; Monitorizaci&#243;n de la mec&#225;nica respiratoria en el paciente ventilado&#46; Med Intensiva&#46; 2014&#59;38&#58;49&#8211;55&#46;</p>"
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