Intensive Care Unit without walls: Seeking patient safety by improving the efficiency of the system

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Gómez Polo, A.J. Alcaraz Romero, M.A. Gil-Ruíz Gil-Esparza, J. López-Herce Cid, M. García San Prudencio, S.N. Fernández Lafever, Á. Carrillo Álvarez" "autores" => array:7 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "J.C." "apellidos" => "Gómez Polo" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "A.J." "apellidos" => "Alcaraz Romero" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "M.A." "apellidos" => "Gil-Ruíz Gil-Esparza" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "J." "apellidos" => "López-Herce Cid" ] 4 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "M." "apellidos" => "García San Prudencio" ] 5 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "S.N." "apellidos" => "Fernández Lafever" ] 6 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Á." 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Gordo, A. Abella" "autores" => array:2 [ 0 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "F." "apellidos" => "Gordo" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "fgordo5@gmail.com" ] "referencia" => array:3 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "a" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "b" "identificador" => "aff0010" ] 2 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "*" "identificador" => "cor0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "A." "apellidos" => "Abella" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "a" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] ] ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:2 [ 0 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Intensive Care Medicine, Hospital Universitario del Henares, Coslada, Madrid, Spain" "etiqueta" => "a" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] 1 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Francisco de Vitoria University, Madrid, Spain" "etiqueta" => "b" "identificador" => "aff0010" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cor0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "Corresponding author." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Unidad de cuidados intensivos sin paredes: buscando la seguridad del paciente mediante la mejora de la eficiencia del sistema" ] ] "textoCompleto" => "The term “Intensive Care Unit (ICU) without walls” refers to innovative management of Intensive Care, based on two key elements: (1) collaboration of all medical and nursing staff involved in patient care during hospitalization and (2) technological support for severity early detection protocols by identifying patients at risk of deterioration in conventional hospitalization wards. This concept emerges from the conviction that we should try to improve patient safety throughout the hospitalization process (from hospital admission to discharge – not only while the patient is admitted to the ICU), striving to improve the efficiency of the system through rational use of the available resources. The crucial point is collaboration among the different hospital Departments involved in critical and potentially critical patient care (i.e., Intensive Care Medicine, Clinical Departments and Surgical Departments), and the nursing units involved in the management of patients in conventional hospitalization wards.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005">1</a>Problem: why has the model of ICU without walls emerged?The objective of Intensive Care Medicine, as defined by the international societies of Intensive Care Medicine in the Santander 2012 statement,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0010">2</a> is to provide critically ill patients with medical care tailored to their needs, of high quality and as safe as possible. Intensive Care Medicine is one of the main elements in modern healthcare systems – Intensive Care Units (ICUs) being in increasing demand, and with an important healthcare cost impact. It is believed that in the United States more than half of the population will be admitted to an ICU at some point in life, and that a significant percentage will die in these Units, consuming between 0.5% and 1% of the country's Gross Domestic Product.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0015">3,4</a> More than 5 million patients are admitted annually to ICUs in the United States. The 5 primary ICU admission diagnoses are, in decreasing order: respiratory insufficiency/failure, postoperative management, ischemic heart disorders, sepsis, and heart failure. However, the availability of ICU beds varies greatly across different countries and healthcare systems.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025">5</a>The management of some critical processes entails major economic and sanitary resource consumption. As an example, in our country (Spain), the annual incidence of severe sepsis is 14.1 cases/10,000 inhabitants, with an overall mortality rate of 33% and a mean hospital stay of 28.9 days. The annual cost of such management (Community of Madrid, Spain) is 70 million €, which represents a significant impact in terms of healthcare resource consumption.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030">6</a> In 2005, critical care services in the United States were estimated to cost $81.7 billion, or 0.66% of the gross domestic product.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0015">3,4</a>ICU patients are in a critical condition, i.e., with potentially life-threatening organ dysfunctions or disorders. They require continuous monitoring and often need organ functional support measures. Although these patients conform a heterogeneous population, all of them share the need for a higher level of acute care than most hospitalized subjects. Frequently, patients in the ICU require cardiovascular or ventilatory support, invasive monitoring and intensive observation by nursing and medical staff members, with a greater reliance upon technology to keep critically ill patients alive (e.g., mechanical ventilation, hemodialysis, plasmapheresis, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, etc.). Despite the widespread belief that the mortality rate is inherently high in our specialty, the percentage of patients who survive to discharge from the ICU is 90% in overall terms.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035">7</a>Scarcity of available ICU beds sometimes leads to rejection of ICU admission<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040">8</a> or to delays in admission to these Units, and that early discharge in turn can lead to a later need for patient re-admission.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045">9</a> Both circumstances are clearly correlated to an increased patient risk and a poorer prognosis (increased length of stay and mortality in both the ICU and in Hospital), and imply greater associated costs arising from the need to use more complex support techniques, an increased need for vital support, and a longer length of stay in the ICU and in Hospital.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0015">3,10,11</a> As an example, Cardoso et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">11</a> have reported that each hour of delay in admission of a patient to the ICU is associated with a 1.5% increase in the risk of death in the ICU and a 1% increase in Hospital mortality. Likewise, Sakr et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060">12</a> have found mortality among critically ill patients to be clearly related to the initial evolution of organ failure and the SOFA score at the time of admission to the ICU. If readmission to the ICU proves necessary, there is a four-fold increase in mortality risk, and the length of Hospital stay is moreover doubled.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0065">13,14</a> Furthermore, information is still lacking on the influence of the availability of beds in the ICU upon the decisions referred to patient triage and upon the outcome of patients in which admission has been rejected.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075">15</a>Not all potentially acute patients are admitted to the ICU; indeed, we can find patients in conventional hospitalization units with diagnoses such as severe sepsis, septic shock, acute organ dysfunctions, and even supposedly specific conditions such as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0080">16,17</a> In addition, we must have a forecast of available ICU beds for high-risk surgical patients who benefit from scheduled admission, since it may result in an improved prognosis.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090">18</a> More than 50% of all hospitalized patients do not receive optimal treatment before admission to the ICU, and a large percentage of admissions are moreover avoidable.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095">19</a> Chen et al. have recently reported that 70% of the patients with a predicted mortality rate of over 30% were not admitted to the ICU and received treatment in conventional hospitalization wards.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100">20</a>In this situation, intensivists, in collaboration with other hospital specialists, must continue working to improve performance: the aim is to be more EFFECTIVE by decreasing morbidity and mortality among our patients; to be more EFFICIENT by reducing the length of stay in the ICU and in Hospital, reducing drug expenditure and the use of consumables (curbing the costs associated with healthcare and improving its health performance); and to improve PERCEIVED QUALITY on the part of the patients, their family, and the healthcare team.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0105">21,22</a>The early clinical care of patients at risk admitted to conventional hospital wards could favorably influence the clinical course and disease prognosis. In effect, if the clinical condition is serious enough, admission to the ICU must be advanced, avoiding unnecessary delays in treatment. Even more importantly, however, if the patient clinical condition allows diagnostic reorientation or intensified therapeutic measures, clinical improvement might be achieved, thereby avoiding the need for admission to the ICU, and also allowing better management of the available healthcare resources (ICU beds).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005">1</a>In recent years, the concept of early detection has become so ingrained that the European Resuscitation Council recommendations on the management of cardiac arrest presently include as first link in the “survival chain” the introduction of measures aimed at preventing cardiac arrest, by detecting previously occurring pathophysiological alterations. This is a necessary measure, for despite structured organization and quality in management of cardiac arrest, the results obtained are disappointing, with a survival rate to Hospital discharge of about 17% according to the American Heart Association (AHA). In the case of an initial shockable rhythm, this figure increases to 37%, but drops to only 11% in the case of asystolia or pulseless electrical activity.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0115">23,24</a> It has been demonstrated that during the hours before a serious patient event occurs (aggravation or even cardiac arrest), detectable physiological changes have already developed. These altered parameters are common to initial disease in general, since they reflect organ failure, such as heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory frequency, oxygenation, urine output, or level of consciousness.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0125">25–29</a> In other words, most cases of in-hospital cardiac arrest are not a sudden or unpredictable event.Solution: early detection of severityWorking methods are thus required to allow the early detection of acute and potentially acute patients in any location within the hospital, with intervention in the early stages of the disease before damage becomes established. Such measures may comprise direct admission to the ICU, or diagnostic and/or therapeutic intervention in the ward where the patient is located, with protocolized close follow-up. Moreover, it is clear that the best results are obtained from collaboration among professionals. It is therefore essential to work with the Ward physician. In this way the medical care provided by intensivists has gradually crossed the physical boundaries of the ICU.The implementation of this workflow benefits from the continuous training of the healthcare staff involved: intensive care and hospital physicians and nurses. The aim is to strengthen the concept of early detection, and to train in the detection of warning signs and in the initially required actions.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0130">26,30</a> Nurses play a key role, since they spend more time in contact with the patient, and are responsible for taking vital signs.Different solutions have been proposed to detect patients at risk:<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005">1.On request systems: such systems involve the definition of alarm or severity criteria that trigger warning to the intensivist. These criteria are usually a combination of clinical and laboratory values, such as blood pressure, heart rhythm alterations, hypoxia or respiratory frequency alterations, decreased level of consciousness, or lowered diuresis.Initially, each hospital designed its own alarm systems, based mainly on Australian multiparametric designs, and on the English model using combined and weighted systems that generate a graded response rate according to the score achieved.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0155">31,32</a> Up to 25 alarm criteria have been described. This wide range reflects a lack of full confidence in their usefulness, and moreover does not allow comparison among studies. In fact, the success of the Medical Emergency Teams lies in correctly identifying patients at risk and in the level of monitoring of the healthcare staff involved. The criteria therefore must have sufficient sensitivity, must be simple to obtain, and should not increase the workload. In addition, continuous training of healthcare staff is easier when these criteria are stable and concise. In the year 2010, an alarm system known as ViEWS<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165">33</a> was published. It includes 7 clinical variables with different scores according to their degree of alteration. The sum of all items can be used to scale the type of response to be given in each situation. In 2012, this system was externally validated in a Canadian study<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170">34</a> as an early predictor of hospital mortality. That same year a modified ViEWS system was described, including lactate levels, and affording an improved positive predictive value referred to hospital mortality.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175">35</a></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010">2.On request systems designed for specific diseases: The evolution of different diseases such as stroke, acute coronary syndrome, polytraumatism or sepsis, among others, has proved to be dependent on how quickly treatment is started. In this sense, there are specific alarm systems that combine clinical and laboratory data, and provide a decision tree for the initial procedures and the need to notify the ICU.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0180">36–39</a> The most recent case is represented by the septic patient care programs, designed and disseminated in many hospitals following the worldwide initiative of the Surviving Sepsis Campaign. A number of publications in our setting have shown these initiatives to afford greater adherence to clinical practices guidelines, with benefit for this group of patients, a shortened hospital stay, and even lesser mortality.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0200">40–42</a></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0015">3.Prospective detection of patients at risk: This comprises a different approach, with the assessment of patients who, for various reasons, are considered to be at risk of severe worsening. The following criteria can be established:<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0010"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0020">•Discharge from the ICU in certain situations, including after a long ICU stay, evolving organ failure, surgical patients with concomitant severe medical conditions, etc.</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0025">•Patients admitted to hospital wards and considered to be “at risk” because of their acute condition, such as those admitted to Emergencies or Emergency Observation Areas.</li></ul></li></ul>The issue to be resolved in these patients subjected to prospective evaluation after due screening (according to physical location in the hospital) is precisely the impossibility of covering all inpatients, which should be the ultimate goal. In this context, and thanks to the digitalization of medical records, it is now possible to use electronic systems to detect pre-defined parameters, such as laboratory data, microbiological information, vital signs or nursing notes, with a view to identifying candidate patients.The program can be complemented with the use of remote vital signs monitoring. This would be useful to intensify the treatment and follow-up of patients who are not in a critical situation requiring admission to the ICU.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215">43</a> Furthermore, collaboration with other specialists must be included, so that a daily bidirectional patient “session” is established to allow the “hospital” physician (with an internist and/or surgeon as the leading example) to conduct joint assessment of patients which because of their disease, evolution or clinical history, are of particular concern to the attending physician.The literature already offers the results of over 10 years of experience with strategies aimed at early detection and intervention in critically ill patients. These strategies are called rapid response systems (RRSs), Medical Emergency Teams (METs) or Critical Care Outreach (CCO) systems, usually led by an intensivist. Such teams aim to improve patient outcomes through recognition and intervention before serious deterioration occurs implying cardiac arrest or urgent admission to the ICU. These teams must be trained to assess, diagnose, initiate treatment and decide ICU admission if necessary; the intensivist therefore offers the appropriate professional profile in this sense.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0130">26,44–46</a>The recent systematic review published by Winters et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235">47</a> shows that many hospitals have implemented rapid response systems over the past 15 years to improve recognition of and response to deteriorating patients in the general hospital ward. Moderate-strength evidence suggests that RRSs are associated with reduced rates of cardiorespiratory arrest and mortality. Important components of successful RRSs include criteria and a system for response team notification and activation; a response team; and an administrative and quality improvement component to train staff, collect and analyze event data, provide feedback, coordinate resources, and ensure improvement or maintenance over time. Implementation issues are critical in RRSs, because rates of use are often suboptimal because of various barriers that could be improved.Previous recommendations and clinical guidelines have always stressed the importance for all hospitals to develop a plan based on their needs, resources and organization. The fundamental aspects are multidisciplinary collaboration, staff training in the recognition and correct interpretation of the severity signs, the leadership of an intensivist, and involvement of the hospital executive bodies.Our solution: the ICU without walls project<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005">1,48</a>Given this background, in our center we decided to develop an Intensive Care Medicine management system fundamented upon critically ill patient safety throughout the hospitalization process. It establishes a strategic focus on “early detection of the critically ill patient outside the ICU”, which refers to the identification of patients at risk outside the Unit, and is based on the recognition, diagnostic orientation and early treatment of acute patients, in collaboration with other clinical specialties, and regardless of their location within the Hospital.Model implementationImplementation of the model has been carried out on a sequential basis, and an analysis of the results of each of the steps has been made. The process began in 2008 with the following steps:<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0015"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0030">1.Implementation of urgent care codes for diseases whose treatment is time-dependent:<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0020"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0035">•Sepsis Code</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0040">•Acute Coronary Syndrome Code</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0045">•CPR Code</li></ul></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0050">2.Detection of patients at risk in the Emergency Department.</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0055">3.Follow-up of patients discharged from the ICU with a poor prognosis risk in the hospitalization ward.</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0060">4.Development of a computer-based laboratory data identification system.</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0065">5.Expansion of the activity throughout the Hospital, in collaboration with other clinical and surgical specialties.</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0070">6.At present, the ICU without walls project is fully operational and is supported by clinical results. It has recently incorporated the possibility of wireless (WiFi) monitoring, in order to improve the control of vital signs in conventional hospitalization wards by means of the Guardian® system (Philips).</li></ul>We have created an electronic alarm system, defining the analytical indicators of severity, determined to detect patients at risk with diseases in which early intervention could improve the prognosis and reduce the occurrence of complications and therefore the associated health costs. The system downloads all laboratory data available in the hospital environment or in the Emergency Department during the previous 24h, and software is used to identify all laboratory test results in which any concrete indicator exceeds any of the predefined thresholds – creating a file with the altered parameter, the extraction time and its value, and the patient identification and location, thereby enabling early detection of these patients.ConclusionsAt this time it can be affirmed that there is still important work to be done in the detection of severity and early intervention in patients at risk of organ dysfunction. This work must be adapted to the circumstances of each center and must include training in the detection of severity, multidisciplinary work in the global patient clinical process, and the use of technological systems for intervention referred to laboratory parameters and the monitoring of physiological parameters – with effective and efficient use of the information generated. Not only information must be generated, but also efficient management systems for this information must be sought.Conflict of interestThe authors declare no conflicts of interest." "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:10 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xres373982" "titulo" => "Abstract" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec353029" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xres373981" "titulo" => "Resumen" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec353030" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Problem: why has the model of ICU without walls emerged?" ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "Solution: early detection of severity" ] 6 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Our solution: the ICU without walls project" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0020" "titulo" => "Model implementation" ] ] ] 7 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0025" "titulo" => "Conclusions" ] 8 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0030" "titulo" => "Conflict of interest" ] 9 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2014-02-05" "fechaAceptado" => "2014-02-10" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec353029" "palabras" => array:10 [ 0 => "Intensive Care Unit" 1 => "Intensive Care Medicine" 2 => "Technology" 3 => "Rapid response teams" 4 => "Health service administration" 5 => "Hospital mortality" 6 => "Patient safety" 7 => "Early warning score" 8 => "Monitoring" 9 => "Vital signs" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec353030" "palabras" => array:10 [ 0 => "Unidad de cuidados intensivos" 1 => "Medicina intensiva" 2 => "Tecnología" 3 => "Equipos de respuesta rápida" 4 => "Administración de servicios sanitarios" 5 => "Mortalidad hospitalaria" 6 => "Seguridad de los pacientes" 7 => "Puntuación de alerta temprana" 8 => "Monitorización" 9 => "Constantes vitales" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "The term “ICU without walls” refers to innovative management in Intensive Care, based on two key elements: (1) collaboration of all medical and nursing staff involved in patient care during hospitalization and (2) technological support for severity early detection protocols by identifying patients at risk of deterioration throughout the hospital, based on the assessment of vital signs and/or laboratory test values, with the clear aim of improving critical patient safety in the hospitalization process.At present, it can be affirmed that there is important work to be done in the detection of severity and early intervention in patients at risk of organ dysfunction. Such work must be adapted to the circumstances of each center and should include training in the detection of severity, multidisciplinary work in the complete patient clinical process, and the use of technological systems allowing intervention on the basis of monitored laboratory and physiological parameters, with effective and efficient use of the information generated. Not only must information be generated, but also efficient management of such information must also be achieved.It is necessary to improve our activity through innovation in management procedures that facilitate the work of the intensivist, in collaboration with other specialists, throughout the hospital environment. Innovation is furthermore required in the efficient management of the information generated in hospitals, through intelligent and directed usage of the new available technology." ] "es" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "El término «UCI sin paredes» se refiere a una innovadora estrategia de tratamiento en cuidados intensivos que se basa en 2 elementos fundamentales: (1) colaboración de todo el personal médico y de enfermería implicado en la atención del paciente durante la hospitalización, y (2) apoyo tecnológico para protocolos de detección temprana de la gravedad identificando a los pacientes en situación de riesgo de deterioro en el hospital a partir de la evaluación de las constantes vitales y/o los resultados de las pruebas analíticas, con el claro objetivo de mejorar la seguridad de los pacientes críticos durante el proceso de hospitalización.En la actualidad puede decirse que todavía queda un importante trabajo por hacer en cuanto a la detección de la gravedad y la detección precoz en pacientes en situación de riesgo de disfunción orgánica. Este trabajo deberá adaptarse a las circunstancias de cada centro e incluir formación para la detección de la gravedad, el trabajo multidisciplinario en el conjunto del proceso clínico del paciente y el uso de sistemas tecnológicos que permitan la intervención a partir de la monitorización de parámetros fisiológicos y analíticos, con un uso eficiente y eficaz de la información generada. No solo debe generarse información sino que también es necesario que esta se gestione de manera eficaz.Es necesario mejorar nuestra actividad mediante la innovación en los procedimientos de gestión que facilitan la labor del intensivista, en colaboración con otros especialistas, en el entorno hospitalario. Además, se requiere innovación para gestionar de forma eficiente la información generada en los hospitales a partir del uso inteligente y eficiente de las nuevas tecnologías disponibles." ] ] "bibliografia" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "References" "seccion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "bibs0005" "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:48 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bib0005" "etiqueta" => "1" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "contribucion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Introduction of a management system in intensive care medicine based on the safety of the seriously ill patient during the entire hospitalization process: extended intensive care medicine" "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etal" => false "autores" => array:3 [ 0 => "E. Calvo Herranz" 1 => "M.T. Mozo Martin" 2 => "F. 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Intensive Care Unit without walls: Seeking patient safety by improving the efficiency of the system

Unidad de cuidados intensivos sin paredes: buscando la seguridad del paciente mediante la mejora de la eficiencia del sistema

F. Gordoa,b,

Corresponding author

fgordo5@gmail.com

Corresponding author.

, A. Abellaa

a Intensive Care Medicine, Hospital Universitario del Henares, Coslada, Madrid, Spain

b Francisco de Vitoria University, Madrid, Spain

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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The term &#8220;Intensive Care Unit &#40;ICU&#41; without walls&#8221; refers to innovative management of Intensive Care&#44; based on two key elements&#58; &#40;1&#41; collaboration of all medical and nursing staff involved in patient care during hospitalization and &#40;2&#41; technological support for severity early detection protocols by identifying patients at risk of deterioration in conventional hospitalization wards&#46; This concept emerges from the conviction that we should try to improve patient safety throughout the hospitalization process &#40;from hospital admission to discharge &#8211; not only while the patient is admitted to the ICU&#41;&#44; striving to improve the efficiency of the system through rational use of the available resources&#46; The crucial point is collaboration among the different hospital Departments involved in critical and potentially critical patient care &#40;i&#46;e&#46;&#44; Intensive Care Medicine&#44; Clinical Departments and Surgical Departments&#41;&#44; and the nursing units involved in the management of patients in conventional hospitalization wards&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a></p><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Problem&#58; why has the model of ICU without walls emerged&#63;</span><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The objective of Intensive Care Medicine&#44; as defined by the international societies of Intensive Care Medicine in the Santander 2012 statement&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> is to provide critically ill patients with medical care tailored to their needs&#44; of high quality and as safe as possible&#46; Intensive Care Medicine is one of the main elements in modern healthcare systems &#8211; Intensive Care Units &#40;ICUs&#41; being in increasing demand&#44; and with an important healthcare cost impact&#46; It is believed that in the United States more than half of the population will be admitted to an ICU at some point in life&#44; and that a significant percentage will die in these Units&#44; consuming between 0&#46;5&#37; and 1&#37; of the country&#39;s Gross Domestic Product&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#44;4</span></a> More than 5 million patients are admitted annually to ICUs in the United States&#46; The 5 primary ICU admission diagnoses are&#44; in decreasing order&#58; respiratory insufficiency&#47;failure&#44; postoperative management&#44; ischemic heart disorders&#44; sepsis&#44; and heart failure&#46; However&#44; the availability of ICU beds varies greatly across different countries and healthcare systems&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The management of some critical processes entails major economic and sanitary resource consumption&#46; As an example&#44; in our country &#40;Spain&#41;&#44; the annual incidence of severe sepsis is 14&#46;1 cases&#47;10&#44;000 inhabitants&#44; with an overall mortality rate of 33&#37; and a mean hospital stay of 28&#46;9 days&#46; The annual cost of such management &#40;Community of Madrid&#44; Spain&#41; is 70 million &#8364;&#44; which represents a significant impact in terms of healthcare resource consumption&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> In 2005&#44; critical care services in the United States were estimated to cost &#36;81&#46;7 billion&#44; or 0&#46;66&#37; of the gross domestic product&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#44;4</span></a></p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">ICU patients are in a critical condition&#44; i&#46;e&#46;&#44; with potentially life-threatening organ dysfunctions or disorders&#46; They require continuous monitoring and often need organ functional support measures&#46; Although these patients conform a heterogeneous population&#44; all of them share the need for a higher level of acute care than most hospitalized subjects&#46; Frequently&#44; patients in the ICU require cardiovascular or ventilatory support&#44; invasive monitoring and intensive observation by nursing and medical staff members&#44; with a greater reliance upon technology to keep critically ill patients alive &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; mechanical ventilation&#44; hemodialysis&#44; plasmapheresis&#44; extracorporeal membrane oxygenation&#44; etc&#46;&#41;&#46; Despite the widespread belief that the mortality rate is inherently high in our specialty&#44; the percentage of patients who survive to discharge from the ICU is 90&#37; in overall terms&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a></p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Scarcity of available ICU beds sometimes leads to rejection of ICU admission<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> or to delays in admission to these Units&#44; and that early discharge in turn can lead to a later need for patient re-admission&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Both circumstances are clearly correlated to an increased patient risk and a poorer prognosis &#40;increased length of stay and mortality in both the ICU and in Hospital&#41;&#44; and imply greater associated costs arising from the need to use more complex support techniques&#44; an increased need for vital support&#44; and a longer length of stay in the ICU and in Hospital&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#44;10&#44;11</span></a> As an example&#44; Cardoso et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> have reported that each hour of delay in admission of a patient to the ICU is associated with a 1&#46;5&#37; increase in the risk of death in the ICU and a 1&#37; increase in Hospital mortality&#46; Likewise&#44; Sakr et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> have found mortality among critically ill patients to be clearly related to the initial evolution of organ failure and the SOFA score at the time of admission to the ICU&#46; If readmission to the ICU proves necessary&#44; there is a four-fold increase in mortality risk&#44; and the length of Hospital stay is moreover doubled&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#44;14</span></a> Furthermore&#44; information is still lacking on the influence of the availability of beds in the ICU upon the decisions referred to patient triage and upon the outcome of patients in which admission has been rejected&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a></p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Not all potentially acute patients are admitted to the ICU&#59; indeed&#44; we can find patients in conventional hospitalization units with diagnoses such as severe sepsis&#44; septic shock&#44; acute organ dysfunctions&#44; and even supposedly specific conditions such as acute respiratory distress syndrome &#40;ARDS&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16&#44;17</span></a> In addition&#44; we must have a forecast of available ICU beds for high-risk surgical patients who benefit from scheduled admission&#44; since it may result in an improved prognosis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> More than 50&#37; of all hospitalized patients do not receive optimal treatment before admission to the ICU&#44; and a large percentage of admissions are moreover avoidable&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> Chen et al&#46; have recently reported that 70&#37; of the patients with a predicted mortality rate of over 30&#37; were not admitted to the ICU and received treatment in conventional hospitalization wards&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a></p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In this situation&#44; intensivists&#44; in collaboration with other hospital specialists&#44; must continue working to improve performance&#58; the aim is to be more EFFECTIVE by decreasing morbidity and mortality among our patients&#59; to be more EFFICIENT by reducing the length of stay in the ICU and in Hospital&#44; reducing drug expenditure and the use of consumables &#40;curbing the costs associated with healthcare and improving its health performance&#41;&#59; and to improve PERCEIVED QUALITY on the part of the patients&#44; their family&#44; and the healthcare team&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21&#44;22</span></a></p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The early clinical care of patients at risk admitted to conventional hospital wards could favorably influence the clinical course and disease prognosis&#46; In effect&#44; if the clinical condition is serious enough&#44; admission to the ICU must be advanced&#44; avoiding unnecessary delays in treatment&#46; Even more importantly&#44; however&#44; if the patient clinical condition allows diagnostic reorientation or intensified therapeutic measures&#44; clinical improvement might be achieved&#44; thereby avoiding the need for admission to the ICU&#44; and also allowing better management of the available healthcare resources &#40;ICU beds&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a></p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In recent years&#44; the concept of early detection has become so ingrained that the European Resuscitation Council recommendations on the management of cardiac arrest presently include as first link in the &#8220;survival chain&#8221; the introduction of measures aimed at preventing cardiac arrest&#44; by detecting previously occurring pathophysiological alterations&#46; This is a necessary measure&#44; for despite structured organization and quality in management of cardiac arrest&#44; the results obtained are disappointing&#44; with a survival rate to Hospital discharge of about 17&#37; according to the American Heart Association &#40;AHA&#41;&#46; In the case of an initial shockable rhythm&#44; this figure increases to 37&#37;&#44; but drops to only 11&#37; in the case of asystolia or pulseless electrical activity&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23&#44;24</span></a> It has been demonstrated that during the hours before a serious patient event occurs &#40;aggravation or even cardiac arrest&#41;&#44; detectable physiological changes have already developed&#46; These altered parameters are common to initial disease in general&#44; since they reflect organ failure&#44; such as heart rate&#44; blood pressure&#44; respiratory frequency&#44; oxygenation&#44; urine output&#44; or level of consciousness&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25&#8211;29</span></a> In other words&#44; most cases of in-hospital cardiac arrest are not a sudden or unpredictable event&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Solution&#58; early detection of severity</span><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Working methods are thus required to allow the early detection of acute and potentially acute patients in any location within the hospital&#44; with intervention in the early stages of the disease before damage becomes established&#46; Such measures may comprise direct admission to the ICU&#44; or diagnostic and&#47;or therapeutic intervention in the ward where the patient is located&#44; with protocolized close follow-up&#46; Moreover&#44; it is clear that the best results are obtained from collaboration among professionals&#46; It is therefore essential to work with the Ward physician&#46; In this way the medical care provided by intensivists has gradually crossed the physical boundaries of the ICU&#46;</p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The implementation of this workflow benefits from the continuous training of the healthcare staff involved&#58; intensive care and hospital physicians and nurses&#46; The aim is to strengthen the concept of early detection&#44; and to train in the detection of warning signs and in the initially required actions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26&#44;30</span></a> Nurses play a key role&#44; since they spend more time in contact with the patient&#44; and are responsible for taking vital signs&#46;</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Different solutions have been proposed to detect patients at risk&#58;<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">1&#46;</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">On request systems&#58; such systems involve the definition of alarm or severity criteria that trigger warning to the intensivist&#46; These criteria are usually a combination of clinical and laboratory values&#44; such as blood pressure&#44; heart rhythm alterations&#44; hypoxia or respiratory frequency alterations&#44; decreased level of consciousness&#44; or lowered diuresis&#46;</p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Initially&#44; each hospital designed its own alarm systems&#44; based mainly on Australian multiparametric designs&#44; and on the English model using combined and weighted systems that generate a graded response rate according to the score achieved&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31&#44;32</span></a> Up to 25 alarm criteria have been described&#46; This wide range reflects a lack of full confidence in their usefulness&#44; and moreover does not allow comparison among studies&#46; In fact&#44; the success of the Medical Emergency Teams lies in correctly identifying patients at risk and in the level of monitoring of the healthcare staff involved&#46; The criteria therefore must have sufficient sensitivity&#44; must be simple to obtain&#44; and should not increase the workload&#46; In addition&#44; continuous training of healthcare staff is easier when these criteria are stable and concise&#46; In the year 2010&#44; an alarm system known as ViEWS<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> was published&#46; It includes 7 clinical variables with different scores according to their degree of alteration&#46; The sum of all items can be used to scale the type of response to be given in each situation&#46; In 2012&#44; this system was externally validated in a Canadian study<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a> as an early predictor of hospital mortality&#46; That same year a modified ViEWS system was described&#44; including lactate levels&#44; and affording an improved positive predictive value referred to hospital mortality&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a></p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">2&#46;</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">On request systems designed for specific diseases&#58; The evolution of different diseases such as stroke&#44; acute coronary syndrome&#44; polytraumatism or sepsis&#44; among others&#44; has proved to be dependent on how quickly treatment is started&#46; In this sense&#44; there are specific alarm systems that combine clinical and laboratory data&#44; and provide a decision tree for the initial procedures and the need to notify the ICU&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36&#8211;39</span></a> The most recent case is represented by the septic patient care programs&#44; designed and disseminated in many hospitals following the worldwide initiative of the Surviving Sepsis Campaign&#46; A number of publications in our setting have shown these initiatives to afford greater adherence to clinical practices guidelines&#44; with benefit for this group of patients&#44; a shortened hospital stay&#44; and even lesser mortality&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40&#8211;42</span></a></p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0015"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">3&#46;</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Prospective detection of patients at risk&#58; This comprises a different approach&#44; with the assessment of patients who&#44; for various reasons&#44; are considered to be at risk of severe worsening&#46; The following criteria can be established&#58;<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0010"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0020"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Discharge from the ICU in certain situations&#44; including after a long ICU stay&#44; evolving organ failure&#44; surgical patients with concomitant severe medical conditions&#44; etc&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0025"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Patients admitted to hospital wards and considered to be &#8220;at risk&#8221; because of their acute condition&#44; such as those admitted to Emergencies or Emergency Observation Areas&#46;</p></li></ul></p></li></ul></p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The issue to be resolved in these patients subjected to prospective evaluation after due screening &#40;according to physical location in the hospital&#41; is precisely the impossibility of covering all inpatients&#44; which should be the ultimate goal&#46; In this context&#44; and thanks to the digitalization of medical records&#44; it is now possible to use electronic systems to detect pre-defined parameters&#44; such as laboratory data&#44; microbiological information&#44; vital signs or nursing notes&#44; with a view to identifying candidate patients&#46;</p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The program can be complemented with the use of remote vital signs monitoring&#46; This would be useful to intensify the treatment and follow-up of patients who are not in a critical situation requiring admission to the ICU&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a> Furthermore&#44; collaboration with other specialists must be included&#44; so that a daily bidirectional patient &#8220;session&#8221; is established to allow the &#8220;hospital&#8221; physician &#40;with an internist and&#47;or surgeon as the leading example&#41; to conduct joint assessment of patients which because of their disease&#44; evolution or clinical history&#44; are of particular concern to the attending physician&#46;</p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The literature already offers the results of over 10 years of experience with strategies aimed at early detection and intervention in critically ill patients&#46; These strategies are called rapid response systems &#40;RRSs&#41;&#44; Medical Emergency Teams &#40;METs&#41; or Critical Care Outreach &#40;CCO&#41; systems&#44; usually led by an intensivist&#46; Such teams aim to improve patient outcomes through recognition and intervention before serious deterioration occurs implying cardiac arrest or urgent admission to the ICU&#46; These teams must be trained to assess&#44; diagnose&#44; initiate treatment and decide ICU admission if necessary&#59; the intensivist therefore offers the appropriate professional profile in this sense&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26&#44;44&#8211;46</span></a></p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The recent systematic review published by Winters et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a> shows that many hospitals have implemented rapid response systems over the past 15 years to improve recognition of and response to deteriorating patients in the general hospital ward&#46; Moderate-strength evidence suggests that RRSs are associated with reduced rates of cardiorespiratory arrest and mortality&#46; Important components of successful RRSs include criteria and a system for response team notification and activation&#59; a response team&#59; and an administrative and quality improvement component to train staff&#44; collect and analyze event data&#44; provide feedback&#44; coordinate resources&#44; and ensure improvement or maintenance over time&#46; Implementation issues are critical in RRSs&#44; because rates of use are often suboptimal because of various barriers that could be improved&#46;</p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Previous recommendations and clinical guidelines have always stressed the importance for all hospitals to develop a plan based on their needs&#44; resources and organization&#46; The fundamental aspects are multidisciplinary collaboration&#44; staff training in the recognition and correct interpretation of the severity signs&#44; the leadership of an intensivist&#44; and involvement of the hospital executive bodies&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Our solution&#58; the ICU without walls project<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;48</span></a></span><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Given this background&#44; in our center we decided to develop an Intensive Care Medicine management system fundamented upon critically ill patient safety throughout the hospitalization process&#46; It establishes a strategic focus on &#8220;early detection of the critically ill patient outside the ICU&#8221;&#44; which refers to the identification of patients at risk outside the Unit&#44; and is based on the recognition&#44; diagnostic orientation and early treatment of acute patients&#44; in collaboration with other clinical specialties&#44; and regardless of their location within the Hospital&#46;</p><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Model implementation</span><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Implementation of the model has been carried out on a sequential basis&#44; and an analysis of the results of each of the steps has been made&#46; The process began in 2008 with the following steps&#58;<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0015"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0030"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">1&#46;</span><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Implementation of urgent care codes for diseases whose treatment is time-dependent&#58;<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0020"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0035"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Sepsis Code</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0040"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Acute Coronary Syndrome Code</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0045"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">CPR Code</p></li></ul></p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0050"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">2&#46;</span><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Detection of patients at risk in the Emergency Department&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0055"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">3&#46;</span><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Follow-up of patients discharged from the ICU with a poor prognosis risk in the hospitalization ward&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0060"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">4&#46;</span><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Development of a computer-based laboratory data identification system&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0065"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">5&#46;</span><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Expansion of the activity throughout the Hospital&#44; in collaboration with other clinical and surgical specialties&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0070"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">6&#46;</span><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">At present&#44; the ICU without walls project is fully operational and is supported by clinical results&#46; It has recently incorporated the possibility of wireless &#40;WiFi&#41; monitoring&#44; in order to improve the control of vital signs in conventional hospitalization wards by means of the Guardian<span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#174;</span> system &#40;Philips&#41;&#46;</p></li></ul></p><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We have created an electronic alarm system&#44; defining the analytical indicators of severity&#44; determined to detect patients at risk with diseases in which early intervention could improve the prognosis and reduce the occurrence of complications and therefore the associated health costs&#46; The system downloads all laboratory data available in the hospital environment or in the Emergency Department during the previous 24<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#44; and software is used to identify all laboratory test results in which any concrete indicator exceeds any of the predefined thresholds &#8211; creating a file with the altered parameter&#44; the extraction time and its value&#44; and the patient identification and location&#44; thereby enabling early detection of these patients&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Conclusions</span><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">At this time it can be affirmed that there is still important work to be done in the detection of severity and early intervention in patients at risk of organ dysfunction&#46; This work must be adapted to the circumstances of each center and must include training in the detection of severity&#44; multidisciplinary work in the global patient clinical process&#44; and the use of technological systems for intervention referred to laboratory parameters and the monitoring of physiological parameters &#8211; with effective and efficient use of the information generated&#46; Not only information must be generated&#44; but also efficient management systems for this information must be sought&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "Problem&#58; why has the model of ICU without walls emerged&#63;"
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        "resumen" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The term &#8220;ICU without walls&#8221; refers to innovative management in Intensive Care&#44; based on two key elements&#58; &#40;1&#41; collaboration of all medical and nursing staff involved in patient care during hospitalization and &#40;2&#41; technological support for severity early detection protocols by identifying patients at risk of deterioration throughout the hospital&#44; based on the assessment of vital signs and&#47;or laboratory test values&#44; with the clear aim of improving critical patient safety in the hospitalization process&#46;</p><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">At present&#44; it can be affirmed that there is important work to be done in the detection of severity and early intervention in patients at risk of organ dysfunction&#46; Such work must be adapted to the circumstances of each center and should include training in the detection of severity&#44; multidisciplinary work in the complete patient clinical process&#44; and the use of technological systems allowing intervention on the basis of monitored laboratory and physiological parameters&#44; with effective and efficient use of the information generated&#46; Not only must information be generated&#44; but also efficient management of such information must also be achieved&#46;</p><p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">It is necessary to improve our activity through innovation in management procedures that facilitate the work of the intensivist&#44; in collaboration with other specialists&#44; throughout the hospital environment&#46; Innovation is furthermore required in the efficient management of the information generated in hospitals&#44; through intelligent and directed usage of the new available technology&#46;</p>"
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        "resumen" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">El t&#233;rmino &#171;UCI sin paredes&#187; se refiere a una innovadora estrategia de tratamiento en cuidados intensivos que se basa en 2 elementos fundamentales&#58; &#40;1&#41; colaboraci&#243;n de todo el personal m&#233;dico y de enfermer&#237;a implicado en la atenci&#243;n del paciente durante la hospitalizaci&#243;n&#44; y &#40;2&#41; apoyo tecnol&#243;gico para protocolos de detecci&#243;n temprana de la gravedad identificando a los pacientes en situaci&#243;n de riesgo de deterioro en el hospital a partir de la evaluaci&#243;n de las constantes vitales y&#47;o los resultados de las pruebas anal&#237;ticas&#44; con el claro objetivo de mejorar la seguridad de los pacientes cr&#237;ticos durante el proceso de hospitalizaci&#243;n&#46;</p><p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">En la actualidad puede decirse que todav&#237;a queda un importante trabajo por hacer en cuanto a la detecci&#243;n de la gravedad y la detecci&#243;n precoz en pacientes en situaci&#243;n de riesgo de disfunci&#243;n org&#225;nica&#46; Este trabajo deber&#225; adaptarse a las circunstancias de cada centro e incluir formaci&#243;n para la detecci&#243;n de la gravedad&#44; el trabajo multidisciplinario en el conjunto del proceso cl&#237;nico del paciente y el uso de sistemas tecnol&#243;gicos que permitan la intervenci&#243;n a partir de la monitorizaci&#243;n de par&#225;metros fisiol&#243;gicos y anal&#237;ticos&#44; con un uso eficiente y eficaz de la informaci&#243;n generada&#46; No solo debe generarse informaci&#243;n sino que tambi&#233;n es necesario que esta se gestione de manera eficaz&#46;</p><p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Es necesario mejorar nuestra actividad mediante la innovaci&#243;n en los procedimientos de gesti&#243;n que facilitan la labor del intensivista&#44; en colaboraci&#243;n con otros especialistas&#44; en el entorno hospitalario&#46; Adem&#225;s&#44; se requiere innovaci&#243;n para gestionar de forma eficiente la informaci&#243;n generada en los hospitales a partir del uso inteligente y eficiente de las nuevas tecnolog&#237;as disponibles&#46;</p>"
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                      "titulo" => "Introduction of a management system in intensive care medicine based on the safety of the seriously ill patient during the entire hospitalization process&#58; extended intensive care medicine"
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                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:3 [
                            0 => "E&#46; Calvo Herranz"
                            1 => "M&#46;T&#46; Mozo Martin"
                            2 => "F&#46; Gordo Vidal"
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                      "doi" => "10.1016/j.medin.2011.05.008"
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                        "tituloSerie" => "Med Intensiva"
                        "fecha" => "2011"
                        "volumen" => "35"
                        "paginaInicial" => "354"
                        "paginaFinal" => "360"
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                            "url" => "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21722991"
                            "web" => "Medline"
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                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Patient-centered care for the critically ill"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
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                          "etal" => false
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                            0 => "World Federation of Societies of Intensive and Critical Care Medicine&#59; Federaci&#243;n Panamericana e Ib&#233;rica de Sociedades de Medicina Cr&#237;tica y Terapia Intensiva&#59; European Society of Intensive Care Medicine&#59; Sociedad Espa&#241;ola de Medicina Intensiva&#44; Cr&#237;tica y Unidades Coronarias&#59; Soci&#233;t&#233; de R&#233;animation de langue Fran&#231;aise&#46; Santander Statement&#58; Intensive Care Medicine"
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                        "link" => "http&#58;&#47;&#47;www&#46;semicyuc&#46;org&#47;sites&#47;default&#47;files&#47;santanderstatement&#95;english&#46;pdf"
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                      "titulo" => "Costs of critical care medicine"
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Article information

ISSN: 21735727
Original language: English

DOI:10.1016/j.medine.2014.09.001

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Year/Month	Html	Pdf	Total

2024 November	9	9	18
2024 October	54	55	109
2024 September	56	41	97
2024 August	50	49	99
2024 July	38	23	61
2024 June	43	33	76
2024 May	42	33	75
2024 April	35	35	70
2024 March	51	26	77
2024 February	40	36	76
2024 January	27	35	62
2023 December	23	37	60
2023 November	26	29	55
2023 October	31	30	61
2023 September	21	41	62
2023 August	20	12	32
2023 July	26	24	50
2023 June	24	18	42
2023 May	34	18	52
2023 April	27	19	46
2023 March	61	31	92
2023 February	47	24	71
2023 January	31	19	50
2022 December	74	33	107
2022 November	64	35	99
2022 October	57	30	87
2022 September	40	42	82
2022 August	48	37	85
2022 July	42	30	72
2022 June	61	32	93
2022 May	64	36	100
2022 April	112	17	129
2022 March	56	62	118
2022 February	81	26	107
2022 January	51	24	75
2021 December	54	56	110
2021 November	81	39	120
2021 October	50	70	120
2021 September	30	35	65
2021 August	44	43	87
2021 July	19	44	63
2021 June	30	31	61
2021 May	41	53	94
2021 April	77	79	156
2021 March	53	20	73
2021 February	52	27	79
2021 January	44	24	68
2020 December	36	28	64
2020 November	27	25	52
2020 October	34	33	67
2020 September	31	14	45
2020 August	21	20	41
2020 July	34	26	60
2020 June	36	11	47
2020 May	38	12	50
2020 April	35	19	54
2020 March	11	10	21
2020 February	54	23	77
2020 January	27	22	49
2019 December	32	13	45
2019 November	21	31	52
2019 October	36	21	57
2019 September	38	24	62
2019 August	51	20	71
2019 July	35	20	55
2019 June	18	12	30
2019 May	48	32	80
2019 April	19	23	42
2019 March	27	16	43
2019 February	34	36	70
2019 January	28	37	65
2018 December	32	45	77
2018 November	57	86	143
2018 October	26	28	54
2018 September	13	5	18
2018 August	14	4	18
2018 July	14	4	18
2018 June	15	7	22
2018 May	10	7	17
2018 April	17	4	21
2018 March	15	5	20
2018 February	12	3	15
2018 January	18	4	22
2017 December	18	5	23
2017 November	16	6	22
2017 October	27	5	32
2017 September	11	5	16
2017 August	11	6	17
2017 July	23	7	30
2017 June	32	7	39
2017 May	24	14	38
2017 April	17	11	28
2017 March	10	9	19
2017 February	10	4	14
2017 January	7	3	10
2016 December	37	5	42
2016 November	49	10	59
2016 October	51	7	58
2016 September	53	8	61
2016 August	46	4	50
2016 July	30	8	38

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